Catherine D. Ennis, Ph.D.
Professor
Curriculum and Instruction
Research Programs
A research program is a series of studies conducted over a number of years to examine a significant topic in great depth. Scholars develop research programs to study phenomena or construct in detail from many different perspectives. I have been fortunate over the last two decades to have conducted research associated with two such research programs: Teachers Values and Beliefs and Student Engagement. For each I have examined several variables associated with the phenomena in an effort to create a more complete understanding its role in enhancing or constraining student learning.
Each of these programs has consumed a decade of my professional career and has led to a number of publications and presentations on these topics. Although a scholar never really completes a research program, occasionally there are factors that lead one to place less emphasis on one program as the data and professional interest evolves into a new set of issues, initiating the next research program. Each new program is connected to the previous program and serves as a conceptual foundation influencing each new step. Currently, I am entering a very exciting time in my career as I my interests in teachers beliefs and student engagement is leading me to the third research program on Student Conceptions of Knowledge.
I have written a tutorial article for the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education (1999, Vol. 18,129-140) that discusses the development of research programs in more detail.
In this section I provide a brief description of each of these three research programs. Included in the first two sections is an overview of the research findings generated in that research program and a list of publications that resulted from these efforts. Because the third program of research on Student Knowledge Conceptions is in the initial stages, I will explain my perspective and discuss our efforts within our NIH funded research on Science-Based Physical Education that should contribute to the development of this program. Interested graduate students should read this section with care to determine their interest in working on these projects.
I have been fortunate to work with a number of outstanding colleagues and graduate students in each of these programs. Please note their names on the publication lists. Their intelligence, creativity and determination have been instrumental in the development of these programs and the publication of our research.
Teachers Beliefs
and Values
I became interested in Teachers Beliefs and Values as a graduate
student at the University of Georgia when my advisor, Dr.
Ann Jewett, structured in-depth seminars on the topic of Value
Orientations. These detailed philosophical discussions supported
by extensive literature critiques prepared me to begin my
research efforts to measure Teachers Value Beliefs and Value
Orientations as an assistant professor at the University of
Wisconsin. The development of the Value
Orientation Inventory (VOI) and subsequent revisions (VOI-2)
with Dr. Ang Chen provided the framework for studies examining
experienced teachers value orientations.
Over the years other scholars have used the Value Orientation Inventory in a variety of research. It has been translated into 6 languages (Chinese, French, Hebrew, Dutch, Spanish, and German) using a rigorous translation protocol first employed by Dr. Dominque Banville (dbanvill@gmu.edu). It has also been revised slightly to be applicable for use by researchers in other subject areas, although to my knowledge, research from this version has yet to be published. Dr. Ang Chen and his colleagues developed a shortened version of the VOI which has been validated and published.
A Note of Caution When Using the VOI
It is important to remember when considering the use of the VOI-2 that it was validated with an experienced population of physical educators (average teaching experience 17 years). This population appears to have fairly stable value orientations, perhaps due to the fact that they have developed and tested their educational belief systems systematically over time. Conversely, scholars who wish to use the VOI-2 to examine the beliefs of other populations, such as preservice and novice teachers, should first validate the instrument with these populations and report this validation process when findings are reported.
In this section I outline some of our most relevant findings using the VOI and VOI-2, provide a list of our publications associated with the construct of teachers values and beliefs, and include a copy of the VOI-2 and scoring guide for interested scholars.
Overview of Findings from Research on Teachers Values and Beliefs
- Teachers beliefs and values directly influence
their choices of content topics, their willingness to enthusiastically
teach a curriculum, and the nature of their instructional
and assessment decisions.
- Teacher beliefs about the value of the content and
its relevance and meaning to students played a role
in their motivation to teach the curriculum (Ennis,
1994).
- Several studies conducted with Dr. Ang Chen and others
(Ennis, 1994; Ennis & Chen, 1993, 1995;
Ennis, Chen, & Ross, 1992; Ennis, Cothran, &
Loftus, 1997; Ennis, Ross, & Chen, 1992; Ennis &
Zhu, 1991) examined the influence of teachers
value orientations on their curricular, teaching, and
assessment decisions. Findings suggest that when teachers
control their educational setting, they can and do make
curricular, instructional and assessment decisions that
reflect many aspects of their value orientation profile.
- This work began with the development and evaluation
of the Value Orientation Inventory (Ennis &
Chen, 1993) that used a forced choice format
to rank teachers priorities for science-based and other
forms of curriculum. Findings from this research confirmed
that teachers have strong beliefs that are highly influential
in their selection of content and teaching methods.
- Further, when teachers distribute their educational
priorities over diverse value perspectives (i.e., disciplinary,
learning process, social, student-centered) instead
of focusing on one or two high priority perspective,
they are unable to convey a clear message about the
content and value of a disciplinary based curriculum.
Students appear to learn very little in these teachers
classrooms (Ennis & Chen, 1995; Ennis &
Zhu, 1991).
- A new curriculum must be presented to teachers in a way that emphasizes the match between teachers current beliefs and the curriculum. Staff development workshops should be designed to emphasis the value of the curriculum and its applicability to current physical education standards and goals for enhancing students voluntary participation in physical activity.
- Teacher beliefs about the value of the content and
its relevance and meaning to students played a role
in their motivation to teach the curriculum (Ennis,
1994).
Research on Teachers values and beliefs require an understanding
of their experience and expertise and led to examinations
of their students decision making in physical education. Research
that developed this construct in more detail led to the following
findings:
- Teachers expertise and prior experience affected their ability to organize, retrieve (remember),
and explain disciplinary content knowledge that serves as
the foundation for effective science-enriched physical education
curriculum. (Ennis, Mueller, & Zhu, 1991; Ennis,
Mueller, & Hooper, 1990):
- The depth and breadth of teachers knowledge expanded
as their level of experience and expertise increased
(Ennis, Mueller, & Zhu, 1991).
- We reproduced this finding presenting additional evidence
that both the complexity and detail of teachers lessons
increased with training. Expert teachers were further
able to add information beyond that which was provided
in the staff development. (Ennis, Mueller, &
Hooper, 1990).
- Teachers performance can be improved by designing staff development to increase their conceptual understanding of disciplinary (science & kinesiology) organization and integration, while providing frequent, direct, and practical applications of the knowledge to teaching.
- The depth and breadth of teachers knowledge expanded
as their level of experience and expertise increased
(Ennis, Mueller, & Zhu, 1991).
Ennis et al. Publications Reporting Findings about Teachers’ Values and Beliefs
(+ designates data-based research; *designates research or philosophical synthesis; #designates invited article)
- +Ennis, C.D., & Hooper, L.M. (1988).
- Development of an instrument for assessing educational value orientations. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 20, 277-280.
- +Ennis, C.D., Mueller, L.K., & Hooper, L.M. (1990).
- The influence of teacher value orientations on curriculum planning within the parameters of a theoretical framework. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61, 360-368.
- *Jewett, A.E., & Ennis, C.D. (1990).
- Ecological integration as a value orientation for curricular decision making. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 5, 120-131.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1990).
- Analyzing curriculum as participant perspectives. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 9, 79-94.
- +Ennis, C.D., & Zhu, W. (1991).
- Value orientations: A description of teachers goals for student learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 33-40.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1992).
- Curriculum theory as practiced: Case studies of operationalized value orientations. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 11(4), 358-375.
- *Ennis, C.D. (1992).
- Reconceptualizing learning as a dynamical system. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 7, 115-130.
- *Ennis, C.D. (1992).
- The influence of value orientations in curricular decision making. Quest, 44(3), 317-329.
- +Ennis, C.D., Chen, A., & Ross, J. (1992).
- Educational value orientations as a theoretical framework for experienced urban teachers curricular decision making. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 25, 156-163.
- +Ennis, C.D., Ross, J., & Chen, A. (1992).
- The role of value orientations in curricular decision making: A rationale for teachers goals and expectations. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63, 38-47.
- +Ennis, C.D., & Chen, A. (1993).
- Domain specifications and content representativeness of the revised Value Orientation Inventory. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64(1), 436-446.
- *Ennis, C.D. (1994).
- Knowledge and beliefs underlying curricular expertise. Quest, 46, 165-175.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1994).
- Urban secondary teachers value orientations: Delineating curricular goals for social responsibility. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 13, 163-179.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1994).
- Urban secondary teachers value orientations: Social goals for teaching. Teaching & Teacher Education, 10(1), 109-120.
- +Ennis, C.D. & Chen, A. (1995).
- Teachers value orientations in urban and rural school settings. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 66(1), 41-50.
- *Ennis, C.D. (1996).
- A model describing the influence of values and context on student learning. In S. Silverman & C.D. Ennis, (Eds.), Student learning in physical education: Applying research to enhance instruction (pp. 127-148).Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
- +Ennis, C.D., Cothran, D.J., & Loftus, S.J. (1997).
- The influence of teachers educational beliefs on their knowledge organization. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 30, 73-86.
- +Chen, A., Liu, Z., & Ennis, C.D. (1997).
- Universality and uniqueness of teacher educational value orientations: A cross-cultural comparison between USA and China. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 30(3), 135-143.
- +Zhu, W., Ennis, C.D., & Chen, A. (1998).
- Modeling experts judgment in test development. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 2, 21-40.
Value Orientation Inventory Links:
- Value Orientation Inventory (VOI-2) (PDF File)
- VOI-2 Scoring Guide (PDF File)
Extensive research in public schools examining teachers values and beliefs raised interesting questions about the impact of educational situations or contexts on the extent to which teachers could plan, teach, and assess in a manner consistent with their beliefs. We became aware of teachers who had very clear value orientation profiles, who could articulate and elaborate their value perspectives cogently, but when observed, were not teaching in a manner consistent with their value perspectives. Because one of our earlier findings indicated that many teachers taught consistently with their perspectives, this line of research began with the examination of conditions under which teacher did not or could not teach in a manner that was consistent with their value orientation profiles.
In the course of this research program, a number of variables were examined such as organizational and management skills, ability to teach effectively, and administrative support, including instructional time, facilities and equipment. However, in the urban schools in which we routinely conduct our research, the most salient factor that constrained teacher ability to teach their values was their (a) knowledge of teaching methods consistent with their value profile, and (b) ability to engage students effectively in the content.
This research program included a number of qualitative research studies examining factors in the teaching environment including curriculum and teaching practices that disrupted the instructional process. The research relied on in-depth observations of physical education lessons and extensive interview of students, teachers and administrators. Although we agreed with physical educators that disruptive students made it very difficult to teach content, we looked more deeply at the pedagogical practices that appeared to trigger student disruptions.
As our research continued, we developed a better understanding of content and pedagogical presentations that could engage even the most disruptive students. We developed these perspectives into a coherent curriculum model based directly on the Sport Education model (Siedentop, 1995). The new "Sport for Peace" curriculum was examined extensively in middle and high schools. This curriculum approach enhanced the interest that students had in the content, increased the mutual respect between teachers and students, assisted students to be more personally and socially responsible, helped them to care for others and to use conflict negotiation skills to resolve social issues during class time. In fact, students explained this approach as helping the physical education class feel like a family. This sense of family translated into a higher level of student engagement with a resulting increase in student knowledge and skill.
Overview of Findings Associated with Student Engagement
- Students disruptive behaviors directly impact
teachers ability and willingness to teach a given curriculum.
Curricular structures and the pedagogical presentation of
the curriculum should engage students actively and authentically
in learning.
- In examinations of teacher who advocated the social
responsibility value orientation (Ennis, Chen
& Ross, 1992; Ennis, Ross, & Chen, 1992),
we presented evidence that a major factor contributing
to teacher adoption of a social perspective on learning
was the presence of disruptive students in their class
or school.
- Not surprising, when teachers were unable to control
their students, they began to espouse a belief that
students should be taught to be more responsible, often
in place of the disciplinary content.
- Follow-up research (Ennis, 1995, 1996, 1998a
1998b; Ennis et al., 1997) to examine this
phenomenon provided rich descriptive accounts of student
disruption and disengagement and the impact of these
on teachers willingness to try new ideas and to maintain
energy and interest in teaching.
- Thus, not only teachers beliefs but also the
challenges of teaching and learning in urban schools
appeared to be significant factors constraining the
adoption of innovative approaches to curriculum.
- Evidence from this research indicated that students
were most likely to disengage or confront the teacher
when they felt the teacher was not making an effort
to teach.
- Disruptive students argued that if the teacher was
not willing to make an effort to present the content
meaningfully, then why should they sit patiently and
endure a boring lesson? They questioned why they should
be obedient when they knew they were not learning and
could not learn when teachers simply lectured or required
them to complete worksheets. They explained that they
learned most effectively and could become interested
and engaged in the content when it was presented in
active, enjoyable formats. Students reported they enjoyed
games, skits, role playing, and other activities in
which they could move around the classroom and interact
with others. The students outlined a number of strategies
consistent with social constructivist learning theories
that they said enhanced their interest and ability to
learn. Likewise, teachers reported they were more successful
when they used active, problem-solving learning strategies
to help students engage in the curriculum content and
make it meaningful in their lives. Many of these strategies
involve active, in-depth learning experiences and authentic
performances as the means for formative and summative
evaluation of learning (Darling-Hammond, 1997). It is
critical that there be a close match between the curriculum
and teaching methods and students interests, needs,
and learning preferences.
- Students engaged in active, in-depth learning characterized
by multiple opportunities to interact socially and playfully
with the content.
- Teachers often respond positively when presented with
coached opportunities to test these curricula in their
own classrooms with their own students to confirm its
effectiveness.
- In examinations of teacher who advocated the social
responsibility value orientation (Ennis, Chen
& Ross, 1992; Ennis, Ross, & Chen, 1992),
we presented evidence that a major factor contributing
to teacher adoption of a social perspective on learning
was the presence of disruptive students in their class
or school.
- Students perceptions of interest and engagement
are enhanced significantly when physical activity curricula
include a cognitive component.
- Similar to evidence provided by Ennis and colleagues (Ennis,
Cothran, Stockin, et al., 1997; Cothran & Ennis, 1997),
- Chen's research (1998) confirmed that a lack of cognitive
and affective meaningfulness was cited by students as
the primary reason why they thought learning physical
activities boring.
- The presence of cognitive and affective information
in the content contributed significantly to sources
of situational interest.
- Evidence from Chen's research indicated that, for
a physically active learning task to be interesting,
it must be relatively novel to students and should provide
students with moderate, but not excessive levels of
physical challenge.
- Further, the task/activity should demand high levels
of cognitive attention, promote and strengthen students’
desire for exploration, and provide students with instant
enjoyment when engaging in the task (Chen, 1998).
- Effective Curriculum integrate cognitive and physical
task components to enhance students feelings of novelty,
perceptions of moderate challenge, opportunities to
explore meaningful knowledge, and high levels of instant
enjoyment.
- Chen's research (1998) confirmed that a lack of cognitive
and affective meaningfulness was cited by students as
the primary reason why they thought learning physical
activities boring.
- Student learning and teachers’ and students’
willingness to engage can be increased using a social-constructivist
curricula.
- Research (Ennis, 1999a; Ennis 1999b; Ennis et al., 1999) in urban high schools focused on designing and evaluating a constructivist curriculum that addressed the concerns of disruptive and disengaged students within a format that teachers would accept and implement.
- The Sport for Peace curriculum used active, problem-solving tasks that encouraged students to take ownership of the content and pride in their accomplishments.
- As a result of this research we provided evidence that formally dominant aggressive students responded positively and were proud of their teams’ success, while formerly intimidated students, many of whom were girls (Ennis, 1999a), were more willing to participate and contribute to the team’s efforts. Teachers were amazed at students’ willing responses to the curriculum.
- They acknowledged that using problem solving tasks and providing students with ownership of decisions within their team created a powerful curriculum.
- The curriculum (a) changed the atmosphere dramatically from a disruptive to a learning-oriented environment, (b) used strategies that resulted in a more interesting curriculum to teach and one that stimulated and rewarded teacher’s efforts, and (c) was consistent with teachers’ beliefs about physical education, increasing the likelihood that the program would continue.
Ennis et al. Publications Reporting Student Engagement Findings
(+ designates data-based research; *designates research or philosophical synthesis; #designates invited article)
- +Ennis, C.D. (1994).
- Urban secondary teachers' value orientations: Delineating curricular goals for social responsibility. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 13, 163-179.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1994).
- Urban secondary teachers' value orientations: Social goals for teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 10(1), 109-120.+Ennis, C.D. (1995). Teachers' responses to noncompliant students: The realities and consequences of a negotiated curriculum. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11, 445-460.
- #Ennis, C. D. (1996).
- Students’ experiences in sport-based physical education: [More than] Apologies are necessary. Quest, 48, 454-457.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1996).
- When avoiding confrontation leads to avoiding content: Disruptive students' impact on curriculum. Journal of Curriculum and Supervision, 11, 145-162.
- +Chen, A., & Ennis, C.D. (1996).
- Teaching value-laden curricula in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 15, 338-354.
- +Ennis, C.D., Cothran, D.J., Stockin, K.D., Owens, L.M., Loftus, S.J., Swanson, L., & Hopsicker, P. (1997).
- Implementing curriculum within a context of fear and disengagement. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17, 58-72.
- +Cothran, D.J., & Ennis, C.D. (1997).
- Students and teachers’ perceptions of conflict and power. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, 541-553.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1998).
- The context of culturally unresponsive curriculum: Constructing ethnicity and gender within a contested terrain. Teaching and Teacher Education, 14, 749-760.
- +Cothran, D.J., & Ennis, C.D. (1998).
- Curricula of mutual worth: Comparisons of students' and teachers' curricular goals. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 17, 307-326.
- +Cothran, D.J., & Ennis, C.D. (1999).
- Alone in a crowd: Meeting students’ needs for relevance and connection in urban high school physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 18, 234-247.
- *Ennis, C.D. (1999).
- The theoretical framework: The central piece in the research plan. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 18, 129-140.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1999).
- Creating a culturally relevant curriculum for disengaged girls. Sport, Education, and Society, 4, 31-49.
- #Ennis, C.D. (1999).
- Communicating the value of active, healthy lifestyles to urban students. Quest, 51, 164-169.
- +Ennis, C.D., Solmon, M.A., Satina, B. Loftus, S.J., Mensch, J., & McCauley, M.T. (1999).
- Creating a sense of family in urban schools using the “Sport for Peace” Curriculum. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 70, 273-285.
- +Cothran, D.J., & Ennis, C.D. (2000).
- Building bridges to student engagement: Communicating respect and care for students in urban high schools. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 23, 106-117.
- +Ennis, C.D. (2000).
- Canaries in the coal mine: Responding to disengaged students using theme-based curricula. Quest, 52, 119-130.
- +Cothran, D.J., & Ennis, C.D. (2001).
- "Nobody said nothing about learning stuff": Students, teachers, and curricular change. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 36, 1-5.
- +Ennis, C. D., & McCauley, M.T. (2002).
- Creating urban classroom communities worthy of trust. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 34, 149-172.
- +Azzarito, L., Ennis, C.D. (In press).
- A sense of connection: Toward social constructivist physical education. Sport, Education, and Society.
Teachers' and Students' Conceptions of Knowledge
In the early 1990s I worked with Dr. Margaret Safrit and Dr. Fran Nagel colleagues at the University of Wisconsin to examine teachers and students information retrieval and decision making in a series of studies examining a computer-based program to generate fitness programs. Using a novice-expert comparison protocol, we analyzed novice subjects’ thought processes when analyzing computer case studies and prescribing fitness programs to address specific client needs. We then compared their solution processes to those of experts.
In a related set of studies, I worked with Dr. Joanne Lazarus to compare the solutions of field dependent and independent elementary students on ball retrieval tasks. By adjusting the demands of the tasks, we could encourage young students to think differently about the problems and adjust the strategies they used to solve the problems. I continued this research with field dependent and independent students examining difference in their approaches to a variety of physical education tasks within a movement education curriculum. We concluded this series of studies by testing a series of classroom strategies and tasks philosophically consistent with a movement education curricular perspective that were designed to specifically to address the needs of field dependent children within this complex curriculum.
Now, as I return to my interest in teacher and student conceptions of knowledge, the NIH funding we have expands the possibilities for our research in both size and depth. Our research focus continues to expand from single-theory, small-scale, local impact studies to integrated-theory, large-scale, national impact research. The research program nested within the NIH project will examine teachers’ and students’ alternative conceptions of scientific concepts that are central to both science and physical education. Defined within the parameters of the National Standards in Science and Physical Education, this examination will focus directly on the development of alternative conceptions and misconceptions based on teacher and student prior experience and knowledge. Likewise, student conceptualization of knowledge will be traced both from an experiential perspective and an instructional perspective to examine the source of misconceptions originating in poorly designed and communicated curricular and instructional practices.
As we are beginning this phase of research, I am interested in working with new colleagues and graduate students who share these interests. Information about becoming part of our research team is available on this website under the headings: Positions Available. Likewise, additional information about this research is available under the NIH funding heading.
Overview of Findings Associated with Conceptions of Knowledge
- Teachers’ and students’ willingness
and ability to use disciplinary knowledge to solve problems
is related to their expertise and prior knowledge (Ennis
& Safrit, 1990, 1991; Safrit, Ennis & Nagle, 1988).
- Novice subjects rarely chose to seek additional scientific
information beyond the common understandings already
present in long-term memory. Instead they were more
likely to draw from personal experiences, relying on
knowledge they had previously found to be relevant,
interesting, or helpful.
- Findings indicated that their problem solving subroutines
were not firmly connected to their decision-making processes.
- Although they could use more sophisticated subroutines
when prompted, novice processing was characterized by
weak connections that were easily forgotten when searching
for prescriptive applications of scientific knowledge.
- We concluded that frequent contact with the knowledge
constructs and frequent application of the knowledge
to relevant problems increased subjects’ ability
to use disciplinary and scientific data for problem
solving.
- Curriculum and staff development materials prepared
for novice learners and teachers can be designed to
actively engage students and reinforce teachers’
and students’ efforts to seek and use the material.
- Curricular connections to prior experiences that are
frequent and attractive enhance teacher and student
ownership of the teaching-learning process.
- Novice subjects rarely chose to seek additional scientific
information beyond the common understandings already
present in long-term memory. Instead they were more
likely to draw from personal experiences, relying on
knowledge they had previously found to be relevant,
interesting, or helpful.
- Additional research investigating novices’
decision making processes examined elementary students’
use of cognitive processes to solve problems in physical
education using a variation of the scientific method (Ennis
& Lazarus, 1990).
- Students were more successful when they followed the
scientific process than when they became distracted
or were anxious to conclude the task quickly (Ennis
& Lazarus, 1990).
- Additional qualitative/ ethnographic research (Ennis,
1991) documented similar performance-based
sequences used by students in solving problems presented
by teachers within the physical education class.
- Students’ used many strategies typically included
in taxonomies of critical thinking and meta-cognition
(Ennis, 1991).
- Problem solving tasks can be designed to encourage
students to use a systematic process based on scientific
inquiry to gather data about their own performance,
process the data, make changes, and draw conclusions
about their performance directly enhancing their success.
- Students were more successful when they followed the
scientific process than when they became distracted
or were anxious to conclude the task quickly (Ennis
& Lazarus, 1990).
- Teachers’ expertise and prior experience
affected their ability to organize, retrieve/remember, and
explain disciplinary content knowledge that serves as the
foundation for effective science-enriched physical education
curriculum. (Ennis, Mueller, & Zhu, 1991; Ennis, Mueller,
& Hooper, 1990):
- The depth and breadth of teachers’ knowledge
expanded as their level of experience and expertise
increased (Ennis, Mueller, & Zhu, 1991).
- We produced additional evidence that both the complexity
and detail of teachers’ lessons increased with
training. Expert teachers were further able to add information
beyond that which was provided in the staff development.
(Ennis, Mueller, & Hooper, 1990).
- Teachers’ performance can be improved by designing staff development tasks to increase their conceptual understanding of disciplinary (science & kinesiology) organization and integration, while providing frequent, direct, and practical applications of the knowledge to teaching.
- The depth and breadth of teachers’ knowledge
expanded as their level of experience and expertise
increased (Ennis, Mueller, & Zhu, 1991).
- +Safrit, M.J., Ennis, C.D., & Nagle, F.J. (1988).
- The use of problem solving skills in computer aided instruction: An evaluation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 4, 227-243.
- +Ennis, C.D., & Chepyator-Thomson, J.R. (1990).
- Learning characteristics of field-dependent children within an analytical concept-based curriculum. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 10, 170-187.
- +Ennis, C.D., & Hooper, L. M. (1990).
- An analysis of the Purpose Process Curriculum Framework as a theoretical framework for an instrument to examine teacher priorities for selecting curriculum content. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 61, 50-58.
- +Ennis, C.D., & Lazarus, J.C. (1990).
- Cognitive style and gender differences in children's motor task performance. Early Child Development and Care, 64, 33-46.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1991).
- Discrete thinking skills in two teachers' physical education classes. Elementary School Journal, 91, 473-487.
- +Ennis, C.D. (1991).
- Instructional strategies to facilitate the learning of field-dependent children. Early Child Development and Care, 67, 95-109.
- +Ennis, C.D., Chen, A., & Fernández-Balboa, J.M. (1991).
- Cognitive style differences within an analytical curriculum: Examples of success and nonsuccess. Early Child Development and Care, 74, 123-134.
- +Ennis, C.D., Mueller, L.K., & Zhu, W. (1991).
- Description of knowledge structures within a concept-based curriculum framework. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62, 309-318.
- +Ennis, C.D., & Safrit, M.J. (1991).
- The use of hierarchical problem solving subroutines in the solution of exercise science problems. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 7, 241-254.
- +Ennis, C.D., & Safrit, M.J. (1991).
- Utilizing a computer simulation to compare expert/ novice problem-solving subroutines. British Journal of Educational Technology, 22, 174-186.
- Involving Families in Science and Physical Education
Ennis et al. Publications Associated with Student Knowledge Conceptions
(+ designates data-based research; *designates research or philosophical synthesis; #designates invited article)
Science Based Physical Education (SBPE) Project
Project Overview
The NIH National Center for Research Resources has funded a 3yr. study to design, implement, and evaluate an elementary Science Based Physical Education (SBPE) curriculum for urban school children. The grant, totaling ~$1 million, will fund Curriculum Writing, extensive staff development for physical education teachers, the development of innovative instructional technology, and extensive data collection and analysis to examine the effectiveness of this program to enhance student learning in science and physical education. Click on the SBPE headings on the bar at the left to learn more about project details.
My research program nested within the NIH project will examine teachers’ and students’ alternative conceptions of scientific concepts that are central to both science and physical education. Defined within the parameters of the National Standards in Science and Physical Education, this examination will focus directly on the development of alternative conceptions and misconceptions based on teacher and student prior experience and knowledge. Likewise, student conceptualization of knowledge will be traced both from an experiential perspective and an instructional perspective to examine the source of misconceptions originating in poorly designed and communicated curricular and instructional practices.
Curriculum Materials and Staff Development
Curriculum products include three, 30 lesson modules for 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade students (90 lessons total in health related science with natural connections to physical education. The modules, “Dr. Love’s Healthy Heart,” “Mickey’s Mighty Muscles,” and “Our Gene Team,” use the scientific process within a series of problem-solving lessons to guide students to construct their understanding of concepts and skills. Lessons include student workbooks that assist students to focus and monitor the active-learning process.
Teacher Staff Development
Teachers will benefit from extensive curriculum and instructional materials, as well as extensive summer staff development. Additionally, as teachers are implementing the modules, they have the assistance of an expert advisor to model lessons and offer in-class suggestions to enhance teaching effectiveness.
Instructional Technology
A central component of the new curriculum will be CD ROM/Video materials that will accompany each lesson and can be used by either the classroom teacher or the physical educator to focus students on the lesson topic. NIH funded scientists from the Department of Kinesiology at the University of Maryland will “star” in the CD, explaining how the scientific process works in the study of physical activity. Through this technology they will “take” students into their laboratories to show real experiments in kinesiology. Because one goal of the project is to assist students to think of themselves as junior scientists, the CD/Video technology will be key to achieving this goal.
An interactive website will also be used to keep parents informed of the content and topics their students are currently studying and to offer informative tips regarding family health within this format. Data collection will also be centralized from this site offering each school the opportunity to few student progress and monitor project findings.
Elementary schools will receive 30+ pedometers as well as other equipment deemed necessary to implement the modules. Students in each grade will focus on measuring performance in a grade-appropriate manner.
A Family Science Activity Night will accompany the modules and will be held once each year at each participating target school. Students will have the opportunity to lead their family through activities similar to those they have just participated in during physical education class, assuming responsibility and acting as the junior scientist in-charge of the Family Science Activity Night activities. Other website activities will be provided for families to complete together corresponding to key concepts and skills I the curriculum.
Research Design
This project is being conducted as a research study in which students in 3rd, 4th and 5th grade in 15 target schools will experience the new curriculum. Their performance on a variety of tasks, tests and questionnaires will be compared with students in 15 comparison schools. Project team members will gather data from a representative sample of students at each school on variables such as science and physical education knowledge and skills, interest in science and physical education, and perceptions of themselves as junior scientists. Teachers will evaluate the ease of use of the curriculum and offer suggestions throughout on improving the quality and usefulness of the new approach. The data will be analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling to examining the effectiveness of the curriculum in enhancing student learning.
SBPE Partners
The grant is funded through an NIH Science Education Partnership Award and our project involves several key partners that support and facilitate our work. Our school district partner is the Prince George’s County Public Schools. This is a large urban district bordering Washington, DC with upward of 140,000 students. Students are culturally diverse and reflect both lower and middle class backgrounds. Our project will focus specifically on Title 1 schools, assisting lower performing students to engage and learn in science and physical education.
The partnership with Kinesiology Scientists and Science Teachers provides the necessary expertise to assure that the science and physical education content is accurate and is taught correctly within the physical education lessons. Likewise, kinesiology scientists and their graduate students will visit the target elementary schools to meet the students and give students an opportunity to meet a real scientist and one that they seen on the CD ROM. The scientists will help students as they work through the scientific process, examining the effects of physical activity on their bodies. Science teachers will partner with the physical education teachers to design integrated units when possible to focus student attention and interest on the physical education topic. This integration will help students understand that science is not just learned in the classroom --- but part of many fun and interesting experiences in physical education and at home.
